The Qauternary Era: Ice, Water, and the Emergence of Modern Landscapes
The Quaternary Era, spanning approximately 2.6 million years ago to the present, marks the most recent chapter of Earth’s geological history. It is the period in which the planet’s modern climate systems, coastlines, and ecosystems were formed — and the time in which humans evolved and spread across the world.
The Quaternary is the last of the Cenozoic periods, following the Neogene, and is divided into two epochs:
Pleistocene (2.6 million – 11,700 years ago) — the age of repeated ice ages and megafauna.
Holocene (11,700 years ago – present) — the age of climatic stability and human civilization.
In Australia, and particularly Victoria, the Quaternary shaped the modern environment — carving river valleys, forming volcanic landscapes, and defining coastlines. It was also the period in which Aboriginal peoples arrived and flourished, developing the world’s oldest continuous cultures in harmony with Country.
Global Geology and Climate of the Quaternary
Glacial and Interglacial Cycles
The defining characteristic of the Quaternary is the alternation between glacial and interglacial periods, driven by Milankovitch cycles — variations in Earth’s orbit and tilt (Zachos et al., 2001).
During glacial periods, vast ice sheets covered North America, Europe, and parts of Asia.
Sea levels dropped by up to 120 metres as water was stored in ice caps.
Interglacial periods, like the present Holocene, saw melting ice, rising seas, and the expansion of forests and grasslands.
These climatic oscillations reshaped the Earth’s surface, influencing species migration, ecosystem dynamics, and human evolution (Lisiecki & Raymo, 2005).
The Quaternary in Australia
A Continent Without Ice
Unlike the Northern Hemisphere, Australia did not experience continental glaciation, but the climatic effects were profound.
Aridification intensified: deserts expanded across central Australia.
During glacial maxima, rainfall decreased, and vegetation shifted to drought-tolerant species.
Megafauna, such as Diprotodon (giant wombat), Procoptodon (giant kangaroo), and Thylacoleo carnifex (marsupial lion), roamed open plains (Archer & Hand, 2006).
Rising and falling sea levels repeatedly connected and isolated Tasmania, New Guinea, and the mainland, forming the ancient continent of Sahul.
Volcanism and Landscape Change in Victoria
The Western Victorian Volcanic Plains, which began forming in the late Neogene, remained active throughout the Quaternary (Joyce, 2010).
Eruptions at Mount Eccles (Budj Bim), Mount Napier, and Tower Hill occurred between 30,000 and 5,000 years ago — some witnessed and remembered by Aboriginal people (UNESCO, 2019).
These eruptions created lava flows, crater lakes, and basalt plains, shaping fertile soils used for agriculture and aquaculture.
Lake Condah and nearby wetlands, modified by Gunditjmara people for eel farming, are among the world’s oldest examples of engineered aquaculture systems.
Coastal and Riverine Evolution
During glacial periods, sea levels dropped, exposing large areas of the continental shelf.
When the ice melted, sea levels rose, flooding low-lying areas and forming Port Phillip Bay, Western Port, and the Bass Strait between Victoria and Tasmania (Holdgate et al., 2003).
Rivers such as the Barwon, Moorabool, and Glenelg adjusted their courses repeatedly, depositing sediments and creating wetlands vital to Aboriginal food systems and ecosystems.
Human Arrival and Adaptation
The First Australians
Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests humans arrived in Australia at least 65,000 years ago, during an interglacial period (Clarkson et al., 2017).
They encountered megafauna and lush environments in parts of Victoria and southeastern Australia.
Over millennia, Aboriginal peoples adapted to changing climates — developing fire regimes, seasonal food cycles, and sustainable land management practices.
The concept of “Caring for Country” reflects a deep understanding of Quaternary environmental change and its rhythms (Rose, 1996).
Environmental Knowledge
Aboriginal oral traditions describe sea-level rise, volcanic eruptions, and climate shifts with remarkable accuracy (Neale, 2017).
Budj Bim creation stories record the volcanic eruption that geologists date to around 30,000 years ago.
Coastal communities preserve oral histories of ancient lands now underwater, consistent with post-glacial sea-level rise.
These accounts illustrate the long memory of Country — a human record of the Quaternary embedded in story, ceremony, and art.
Flora and Fauna in the Quaternary
Vegetation
As climates cooled and dried, Eucalyptus, Acacia, and Casuarina species expanded.
During warmer interglacials, rainforests retreated to refugia such as the Otway Ranges and East Gippsland (Christophel & Greenwood, 1989).
Grasslands and heathlands spread across the basalt plains of western Victoria, supporting grazing animals and rich biodiversity.
Faunal Change and Extinction
The late Pleistocene saw the extinction of Australia’s megafauna, around 45,000–30,000 years ago (Roberts et al., 2001).
The causes remain debated — likely a combination of climate stress and human hunting or landscape burning.
Modern fauna evolved in their absence: kangaroos, emus, wallabies, and echidnas became dominant survivors.
Holocene Stability and the Modern World
The Holocene Epoch, beginning around 11,700 years ago, marks a relatively stable climate — a reprieve after millions of years of glacial cycles.
Forests, wetlands, and coasts reached near-modern form.
Aboriginal societies flourished, developing complex trade routes, aquaculture, and ceremonial sites across Victoria.
In the past two centuries, colonisation and industrialisation have rapidly altered Quaternary landscapes through mining, deforestation, and urbanisation.
Today, understanding the Quaternary’s environmental record is crucial for addressing modern issues like climate change, biodiversity loss, and land rehabilitation, as its sediments and fossils reveal how life adapted to past climate crises.
Cultural and Scientific Integration
The Quaternary stands as a meeting point between geology, ecology, and human history.
Aboriginal oral histories provide living accounts of geological and climatic events that Western science dates through sediment cores and isotope analysis (Neale, 2017).
Sites like Budj Bim, Lake Mungo, and Tower Hill represent the convergence of deep-time geological change and enduring human connection.
These landscapes remind us that the story of the Quaternary is not only written in stone and ice but also in story, memory, and Country — a partnership between Earth and people that continues into the Anthropocene.
Conclusion
The Quaternary Era captures the final act of Earth’s deep-time story — a period of ice and fire, sea and sand, and the emergence of humanity.
For Victoria and Australia, it shaped the physical and cultural landscapes we inhabit today. Glacial shifts, volcanic eruptions, and sea-level changes transformed the continent, while Aboriginal peoples developed profound relationships with this dynamic environment.
Understanding the Quaternary connects us to both scientific knowledge and Indigenous wisdom, offering lessons in resilience, adaptation, and respect for the processes that continue to shape Country today.
References
Archer, M. & Hand, S. (2006) The Evolution of Australia’s Fauna. Sydney: UNSW Press.
Christophel, D. C. & Greenwood, D. R. (1989) ‘Changes in vegetation and climate through the Tertiary of southeastern Australia’, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 58, pp. 99–129.
Clarkson, C., Jacobs, Z., Marwick, B., et al. (2017) ‘Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago’, Nature, 547(7663), pp. 306–310.
Holdgate, G. R., Sluiter, I. R. & Kelman, A. P. (2003) ‘The origin of brown coal deposits in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria’, International Journal of Coal Geology, 54(1–2), pp. 77–99.
Joyce, E. B. (2010) The Western Victorian Volcanic Plains: A Field Guide to the Newer Volcanics Province. Geological Society of Australia.
Lisiecki, L. E. & Raymo, M. E. (2005) ‘A Pliocene–Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records’, Paleoceanography, 20(1), PA1003.
Neale, M. (2017) Songlines: The Power and Promise. Canberra: National Museum of Australia.
Roberts, R. G., et al. (2001) ‘New ages for the last Australian megafauna: Continent-wide extinction about 46,000 years ago’, Science, 292(5523), pp. 1888–1892.
Rose, D. B. (1996) Nourishing Terrains: Australian Aboriginal Views of Landscape and Wilderness. Canberra: Australian Heritage Commission.
UNESCO (2019) Budj Bim Cultural Landscape World Heritage Nomination. Paris: UNESCO.
Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E. & Billups, K. (2001) ‘Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present’, Science, 292(5517), pp. 686–693.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter 16/09/2025
Magic Lands Alliance
Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land and community.
Copyright of MLA – 2025
Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.