Water Systems, Aquaculture & Environmental Knowledge
Introduction
Water is life, and for Indigenous peoples of Australia, water systems are far more than physical resources—they are living ancestral beings, cultural pathways, and ecological lifelines. On Wadawurrung Country and across the Kulin Nation, rivers such as the Birrarung (Yarra River), Dhungala (Murray River), and Burrumbeep (Glenelg River) have sustained communities for tens of thousands of years (Clark 1990; VEWH 2022). These waterways are understood not simply as environments but as living entities connected through lore, story, and kinship. At Budj Bim, the Gunditjmara people engineered complex aquaculture systems to farm kooyang (short-finned eels), demonstrating advanced ecological knowledge and deep-time occupation (UNESCO 2019). While colonisation disrupted these systems through damming, diversion, and dispossession, Indigenous water knowledge continues to guide cultural renewal and environmental restoration today (Gammage 2011).
Deep History of Indigenous Water Knowledge
Archaeological and environmental evidence demonstrates that Indigenous peoples have actively managed water systems across Australia for at least 6,600 years, with some systems likely far older (UNESCO 2019). In Victoria, the Budj Bim Cultural Landscape provides clear evidence of sophisticated hydrological engineering integrated with ecological cycles and cultural practice (Atkinson 2020).
Indigenous water knowledge is holistic and interdependent, encompassing:
Hydrology: Detailed understanding of rainfall patterns, river flows, aquifers, and seasonal flooding (Gammage 2011)
Ecology: Observation of breeding cycles of fish, migration of birds, and growth patterns of aquatic plants (Clarke 2009)
Spiritual systems and lore: Waterways are inhabited by ancestral beings, including entities often described in English as the Bunyip, which serve as cultural warnings and teachings about respect and balance (Howitt 1904)
This knowledge is embedded in oral traditions, songlines, and on-Country teaching, where knowledge is learned through lived experience rather than abstract systems (Atkinson 2002).
Indigenous Water Systems in Victoria
Budj Bim Aquaculture (Gunditjmara)
The Budj Bim system is one of the most extensive and oldest known aquaculture networks in the world. Using basalt stone from volcanic flows, the Gunditjmara constructed channels, weirs, and holding ponds to manage water flow and trap kooyang (eels) (UNESCO 2019). These eels were harvested, smoked, and traded across regions, supporting stable, semi-permanent communities and complex economic systems (Atkinson 2020).
This system reflects not only engineering skill but a deep understanding of water behaviour, seasonal change, and ecological sustainability, governed through cultural responsibility and lore.
Birrarung (Yarra River – Wurundjeri)
The Birrarung, meaning “river of mists and shadows” in Woiwurrung language, is central to Wurundjeri life and identity (Clark 1990). It provided fish, yabbies, and plant foods, while its seasonal flooding replenished surrounding wetlands and floodplains (VEWH 2022).
For Wurundjeri people, the Birrarung is a living ancestor, not a resource. Its banks hold ceremonial and teaching sites, and its health reflects the wellbeing of Country and community. This understanding has been formally recognised in modern governance frameworks, including the Yarra River Protection (Wilip-gin Birrarung murron) Act 2017, which acknowledges the river as a living entity (VEWH 2022).
Dhungala (Murray River – Yorta Yorta and neighbouring Nations)
The Dhungala (Murray River) supported large populations through fishing, mussel harvesting, and wetland cultivation (Clarke 2009). Bark canoes—used widely across Kulin and neighbouring Nations—enabled fishing, transport, and trade along the river system.
Dhungala functioned as a major cultural and economic corridor, connecting Nations and facilitating exchange of goods, knowledge, and ceremony. Its cycles of flooding and drying were closely observed and embedded in seasonal calendars and cultural practice (Gammage 2011).
Gippsland Lakes and Wetlands (Gunaikurnai)
The Gippsland Lakes region, part of Gunaikurnai Country, provided rich ecological resources including fish, shellfish, reeds, and medicinal plants (Museums Victoria 2023). Wetland environments were actively managed and understood through observation of seasonal indicators such as bird migrations and plant cycles.
These systems demonstrate the integration of food systems, ecological knowledge, and cultural practice, where harvesting was conducted sustainably under obligations defined by lore (Clarke 2009).
Cultural Significance of Water
Water systems are deeply embedded in Indigenous cultural frameworks:
Ceremonial places: Rivers, springs, and wetlands are sites of initiation, teaching, and knowledge transmission (Atkinson 2002)
Totemic relationships: Species such as kooyang (eels), fish, and waterbirds hold totemic roles, creating responsibilities for care and protection (Clarke 2009)
Story and ancestral presence: Beings such as the Bunyip inhabit waterways, reinforcing respect for both physical and spiritual dimensions of water (Howitt 1904)
Cultural pathways: Rivers function as travel routes and knowledge corridors linking different Nations across Country (Gammage 2011)
These elements form a system of lore, where ecological knowledge, ethics, and cultural identity are inseparable.
Impacts of Colonisation
Colonisation significantly disrupted Indigenous water systems across Victoria:
Damming and diversion altered natural flows and destroyed wetland ecosystems (VEWH 2022)
Pollution, particularly during the gold rush era, introduced sediment and toxic substances into rivers (Gammage 2011)
Dispossession removed Indigenous peoples from access to waterways, breaking cultural and ecological connections (Atkinson 2002)
Damage to aquaculture systems, including Budj Bim, though some knowledge and practices persisted into the 20th century (UNESCO 2019)
These disruptions had long-term impacts on both ecosystems and cultural continuity.
Contemporary Revival
Indigenous communities are actively restoring water knowledge and cultural relationships:
The Budj Bim Cultural Landscape World Heritage listing (2019) recognises the global significance of Gunditjmara aquaculture (UNESCO 2019)
Cultural water entitlements are being negotiated to return water governance to Traditional Owners (VEWH 2022)
Restoration projects include wetland rehabilitation, fish passageways, and cultural land and water management practices
Education initiatives across Wadawurrung, Wurundjeri, and broader Kulin Nations are reconnecting people to water knowledge and Country
These efforts demonstrate the resilience and continuity of Indigenous knowledge systems.
The Future of Water Systems in Victoria
The future of water systems depends on recognising Indigenous leadership and knowledge:
Embedding Traditional Owner governance in water management
Recognising water as a living entity with inherent rights
Revitalising language, story, and ceremony connected to waterways
Applying Indigenous ecological knowledge to address climate change and sustainability challenges (Gammage 2011)
Conclusion
Indigenous water systems in Victoria represent some of the oldest and most sophisticated knowledge systems in the world. From the engineered eel channels of Budj Bim to the living waters of the Birrarung and Dhungala, these systems have sustained communities physically, culturally, and spiritually for millennia. While colonisation disrupted these relationships, they endure through Country, story, and ongoing cultural revival. Protecting water systems requires recognising them as living ancestors and ensuring Indigenous knowledge leads their care into the future.
References
Atkinson, J 2002, Trauma Trails: Recreating Song Lines, Spinifex Press, Melbourne.
Atkinson, W 2020, The Budj Bim Cultural Landscape, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.
Clark, ID 1990, Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria, Monash University, Melbourne.
Clarke, PA 2009, Australian Aboriginal Ethnobotany, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Gammage, B 2011, The Biggest Estate on Earth, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
Howitt, AW 1904, The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, Macmillan, London.
Museums Victoria 2023, Indigenous Water Use Collections, Melbourne.
UNESCO 2019, Budj Bim Cultural Landscape, World Heritage Centre, Paris.
Victorian Environmental Water Holder (VEWH) 2022, Traditional Owner Water Entitlements in Victoria, Melbourne.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter 16/09/2025
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Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.