Native Animals History and Science
Eels of Victoria: River Keepers and Spirit Travellers of Country
The eel, sleek and ancient, is one of Victoria’s most remarkable freshwater species — a traveller between worlds of river and sea. Known scientifically as the Short-finned Eel (Anguilla australis), it plays a crucial ecological and cultural role across the wetlands and waterways of southeastern Australia.
For Indigenous peoples, especially the Gunditjmara, Wurundjeri, Taungurung, and Wadawurrung, eels are ancestral beings, food sources, and teachers of movement, transformation, and patience (Clark 1990; Atkinson 2020). At Budj Bim in southwest Victoria, Gunditjmara people built one of the world’s oldest and most complex aquaculture systems, using basalt channels and weirs to trap migrating eels — a system over 6,600 years old and now listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site (McNiven & Bell 2010).
For colonists, eels became a commodity, harvested for trade and later studied by scientists amazed at their mysterious ocean journeys. Today, they symbolise both cultural continuity and ecological resilience, linking ancient knowledge with modern conservation science.
Origins and Deep Time
Eels are among Earth’s most ancient migratory fish, with ancestors dating back more than 50 million years (Aoyama 2009). The Anguillidae family evolved remarkable physiological adaptations — allowing them to live in freshwater yet spawn in the open ocean.
In southeastern Australia, fossil evidence and sediment studies reveal that eels have inhabited the Murray–Darling and coastal river systems since at least the Pleistocene epoch, migrating seasonally between inland wetlands and the Coral or Tasman Seas (McDowall 1988).
These long migrations — spanning thousands of kilometres — became the foundation for rich Indigenous calendars, ceremonies, and food systems across Victoria.
Deep-Time and Cultural Timeline
The ancient lineage of eels stretches back to the Eocene epoch, around 50 million years ago, when the first Anguillid eels evolved and expanded across tropical and temperate rivers worldwide (Aoyama 2009). By the Pleistocene period (2.6 million–10,000 years ago), Victoria’s modern river systems and volcanic wetlands had formed, creating ideal habitats for migratory eels along the basalt plains and coastal waterways. More than 6,000 years ago, the Gunditjmara people engineered the remarkable Budj Bim aquaculture systems, constructing intricate networks of eel traps and channels — one of the world’s oldest examples of sustainable aquaculture. Before 1788, eel migration was central to Indigenous food security, trade, and ceremony, linking communities across western Victoria through shared ecological knowledge and law. The colonial period (1798–1900) brought widespread disruption, as rivers were dammed, wetlands drained, and overfishing depleted traditional harvests. From the 1900s to the present, scientific research, cultural renewal, and World Heritage recognition of Budj Bim have reasserted the eel’s ecological and cultural importance, symbolising both ancient innovation and enduring resilience within Victorian Country.
Species of Eels in Victoria
Victoria hosts two main species:
Short-finned Eel (Anguilla australis) – Widespread in rivers, lakes, and wetlands; migrates from inland waters to spawn near New Caledonia (McDowall 1988).
Long-finned Eel (Anguilla reinhardtii) – Larger species found mainly in eastern Victorian rivers and estuaries; migrates to tropical waters for spawning.
Both species are catadromous — living in freshwater but breeding at sea — a cycle that connects inland Country with the vast Pacific Ocean.
Ecology and Behaviour
Life Cycle: Eels begin life as transparent larvae (leptocephali) drifting from the ocean to coastal rivers, where they metamorphose into “glass eels” and later “yellow eels.”
Habitat: Prefer slow-moving rivers, swamps, and wetlands with submerged logs and aquatic plants.
Diet: Omnivorous; feed on invertebrates, small fish, and organic detritus.
Migration: Mature adults travel up to 3,000 km downstream to spawn in deep ocean trenches near New Caledonia — a journey still not fully observed by science (Aoyama 2009).
Ecological Role: Top predators and recyclers, eels help regulate aquatic food webs and nutrient cycling (McDowall 1988).
Their annual migrations are vital natural events, influencing waterbird movements and seasonal indicators for Indigenous communities.
Migration Timing, Tides, and Ocean Journeys
One of the most extraordinary aspects of eel life is the precise timing of their migration — a process deeply connected to seasonal flows, lunar cycles, and tidal movements.
In Victoria, adult eels (known as “silver eels” when they reach maturity) typically begin their downstream migration in autumn (March–May), often coinciding with increased rainfall, river flow, and spring tides associated with new and full moons (McDowall 1988). These environmental cues allow eels to move through rivers and floodplains and reach estuaries at the optimal time for ocean entry.
Indigenous ecological knowledge has long recognised these patterns. Seasonal calendars across the Gunditjmara, Wadawurrung, and Wurundjeri peoples align eel migration with shifts in water, wind, and lunar cycles — marking this as a time of movement, harvest, and renewal of Country.
Distance and Ocean Pathways
Once eels leave Victorian rivers, their journey becomes one of the longest migrations of any freshwater fish:
Travel distances of 2,000–3,000 kilometres
Movement from rivers such as the Barwon, Hopkins, and Murray systems
Destination in deep ocean spawning grounds in the Coral Sea near New Caledonia
Long-finned eels undertake similar journeys into tropical Pacific waters.
Despite decades of research, eel spawning has never been directly observed. Knowledge comes from larval tracking and ocean current modelling (Aoyama 2009). After spawning, adults are believed to die, while larvae drift back toward Australia, eventually returning as juvenile “glass eels.”
Tides as Migration Pathways
Tides are essential to eel survival:
Outgoing tides assist adult eels leaving estuaries
Incoming tidal flows help juveniles enter river systems
High tides extend saline influence inland, shaping eel distribution
This creates a continuous ecological loop between inland waters and the sea — reinforcing Indigenous understandings that rivers and oceans form a single connected system.
Population Estimates and Decline Since Colonisation
Before colonisation, eel populations were abundant across Victoria’s wetlands, rivers, and floodplains, particularly in western regions.
At Budj Bim, thousands to tens of thousands of eels were harvested seasonally (McNiven & Bell 2010)
Across Victoria, eel biomass was significantly higher than today
Since colonisation, populations have declined due to:
Wetland loss: Up to 70–90% of wetlands modified or drained in some regions
Barriers: Dams and weirs blocking migration routes
Commercial fishing pressures
Water extraction and reduced flows
Pollution and habitat degradation
Modern studies suggest eel populations in some catchments are now a fraction of pre-colonial levels, though they remain present across much of the state (DELWP 2021; Jacobs et al. 2020).
Cultural and Ecological Implications
The disruption of eel migration affects both ecosystems and culture. For thousands of years, eel movements shaped food systems, trade routes, and ceremonial life.
Restoration efforts — including fish passages, wetland reconnection, and Indigenous-led water management — aim to re-establish these ancient pathways. In doing so, they restore not only biodiversity, but the flow of knowledge, culture, and Country itself.
Language and Names
Eels hold distinct names and meanings across Victorian Indigenous languages:
Gunditjmara: Kooyang — central to Budj Bim culture, law, and economy (Clark 1990).
Wadawurrung: Words associated with “river spirit” or “slippery one,” connected to waterways such as the Barwon River.
Taungurung / Woiwurrung: Terms linked to seasonal abundance and river renewal.
Palawa (Tasmania): Layap or Loyap, meaning food from the water (Ryan 2012).
Language revival programs led by VACL (2022) have restored these words to modern educational and cultural projects across Victoria.
Eels in Indigenous Culture
Food and Resource
Eels were one of the most important food sources across southeastern Australia — rich in protein and fat, and preserved through smoking or drying for trade. Gunditjmara families operated complex aquaculture systems that captured and cultivated eels for seasonal harvest (McNiven & Bell 2010).
Trade and Economy
Smoked eels were traded hundreds of kilometres inland along songlines, linking coastal and riverine nations through exchange networks (Atkinson 2020).
Story and Ceremony
Eels appear in Dreaming stories as shape-shifters and spirit travellers, beings that move between worlds — symbolising adaptability and transformation. Many river systems are said to trace the pathways of ancestral eels who carved the land with their bodies during creation times (Clarke 2008).
Wadawurrung Country
On Wadawurrung Country, eels featured in coastal and freshwater harvesting cycles. Wetland burning and channel management ensured eel abundance and reflected cultural custodianship of water. Ceremonies marked the eels’ seaward migration, signalling the change of season and renewal of Country (Wadawurrung TOAC 2023).
The Eel in the Sky: The Milky Way and Ancestral Pathways
Across many Aboriginal cultures in southeastern Australia and beyond, the sky is not separate from the land — it is Country above, holding stories, ancestors, and ecological knowledge. Within this sky world, the Milky Way is often understood not just as stars, but as a living pathway — a river, a track, or a being moving through the heavens (Norris & Norris 2009; Hamacher 2012).
In some Aboriginal traditions, a great eel or serpent is seen within the Milky Way, its form traced through the dark spaces between the stars — what is often called the “Emu in the Sky” in broader southeastern Australian knowledge systems (Norris & Norris 2009). While the Emu is the most widely documented interpretation, other communities interpret these same dark constellations as elongated, flowing beings, including serpents and eel-like ancestral forms (Hamacher 2012).
These sky beings mirror the movements of eels on Earth.
Just as eels travel from inland rivers to the distant ocean, the celestial eel stretches across the night sky — a reminder that all waterways are connected, from river to sea, and from Earth to sky. The Milky Way itself is often described as a cosmic river, reflecting the pathways of water and life below (Hamacher 2012).
In this way, the eel exists in multiple realms:
In the rivers and wetlands of Country
In the ocean depths where it completes its life cycle
And in the sky, where its story is written in the stars
These connections are not symbolic alone — they are practical knowledge systems. The position of the Milky Way throughout the year can signal seasonal change, guiding when certain animals move, when resources are abundant, and when journeys begin (Norris & Norris 2009).
For some communities, the rising and shifting orientation of the Milky Way across autumn and winter aligns with times of eel movement, reinforcing a deep-time understanding of migration cycles long before Western science began studying them (Hamacher 2012).
This knowledge reflects a worldview where:
Sky, land, and water are one interconnected system
Animals exist across physical and spiritual dimensions
Observation of the cosmos informs life on Earth
Although specific eel constellations and interpretations vary between language groups — and many are held as cultural knowledge not publicly shared — the broader pattern remains clear: the eel, like the serpent, is a traveller between worlds, linking water, land, and sky.
Colonial History and Exploitation
With European colonisation, eel populations and water systems suffered significant disturbance:
Drainage and Dams: Wetlands across western Victoria — including Lake Condah and the Barwon floodplains — were drained for agriculture, disrupting migration paths.
Commercial Fishing: Eels were trapped and exported to Europe and Asia; overfishing reduced stocks.
Cultural Disruption: Aquaculture systems were destroyed or blocked by pastoral fencing and drainage works (Clark 2011).
Scientific Discovery: In the 19th century, European naturalists marvelled at the mystery of eel reproduction, though Indigenous peoples had long known their ocean journeys.
By the 1900s, many eel habitats had declined, yet some — like those at Budj Bim — persisted as silent testaments to resilience and ingenuity.
Recovery and Modern Conservation
The 20th and 21st centuries have seen renewed recognition of both eels and Indigenous aquaculture heritage:
Protection: Eels are now managed under the Fisheries Act 1995 (Vic) with seasonal catch limits.
World Heritage Recognition: In 2019, Budj Bim Cultural Landscape was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for its 6,600-year-old eel aquaculture system (UNESCO 2019).
Cultural Revival: Gunditjmara, Wadawurrung, and Taungurung rangers oversee water management, fish passage restoration, and heritage education.
Research Collaboration: Scientists study eel migration using satellite tracking and Indigenous ecological indicators.
Threats: Climate change, habitat fragmentation, and pollution remain significant challenges.
These efforts show how cultural knowledge and modern science together sustain river health and protect one of Victoria’s oldest living species.
Modern Science and Ecology
Recent research highlights the eel’s extraordinary biology and environmental value:
Migration Mystery: Satellite tagging confirms long-distance migrations to spawning grounds in the South Coral Sea (Aoyama 2009).
Environmental Indicators: Eel abundance reflects wetland health and water connectivity (Jacobs et al. 2020).
Climate Impacts: Rising sea temperatures may alter ocean currents that guide larval return to Australia (Chislett et al. 2021).
Restoration Ecology: Fish ladders and wetland reconnections in the Barwon and Hopkins rivers have improved migration success (DELWP 2021).
Cultural Science Integration: Traditional knowledge of eel behaviour and lunar cycles informs modern hydrological planning and ecological calendars (Wadawurrung TOAC 2023).
Through both cultural and scientific lenses, eels are now recognised as keystone species linking river, ocean, and community well-being.
Global and Cross-Cultural Parallels
Across the world, eels are revered for their mystery and endurance — from Māori tuna in Aotearoa (New Zealand) to unagi in Japan and anguilla in Europe. In each culture, they embody transformation, migration, and connection between waters.
The parallels with Victoria’s kooyang show a global respect for eels as teachers of life’s cycles — a reminder that every river leads to the sea, and every journey returns home.
Cultural Continuity and River Renewal
Modern Indigenous communities lead eel restoration projects grounded in both culture and science:
Budj Bim Ranger programs managing traditional channels and eel-trap maintenance.
Wadawurrung and Barwon River restoration integrating fish passage with cultural education.
Annual Kooyang Festivals celebrating eel migrations and cultural continuity.
Youth and school programs teaching aquaculture history, language, and ecological care.
These initiatives embody the belief that to care for the eels is to care for Country itself — sustaining the rivers, wetlands, and stories that have flowed for millennia.
Conclusion
Eels are among the oldest travellers of Victoria’s waters — creatures of mystery, migration, and memory. For Indigenous peoples, they are not just fish but ancestors, engineers, and teachers, guiding the rhythms of Country and community.
From the stone channels of Budj Bim to the rivers of Wadawurrung Country, the eel’s journey continues — a story of movement, survival, and renewal. Protecting eels means protecting both the living waterways of Victoria and the cultural wisdom that has sustained them since time immemorial.
References
Aoyama, J 2009, ‘Life history and evolution of migration in catadromous eels (Genus Anguilla)’, Aqua-BioScience Monographs, 2(1), pp. 1–42.
Atkinson, W 2020, The Budj Bim Cultural Landscape: Aquaculture and Identity in South-West Victoria, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.
Bevacqua, D et al. 2007, ‘Collapse and recovery of eel populations’, Fish and Fisheries, vol. 8, pp. 1–13.
Chislett, B, Wright, D & Gillanders, B 2021, ‘Climate change and eel migration in southern Australia’, Marine and Freshwater Research, 72(5), pp. 699–709.
Clark, ID 1990, Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria 1800–1900, Monash Publications in Geography, Melbourne.
Clark, ID 2011, Aboriginal People and Sealing in Victoria, 1800–1850, Ballarat Heritage Services, Ballarat.
Clarke, PA 2008, Aboriginal Healing Practices: Smoke, Fire and Plant Use in South-Eastern Australia, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.
DELWP (Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning) 2021, Victorian Fish Passage and Aquatic Habitat Strategy, Victorian Government, Melbourne.
Gehrke, PC et al. 2002, ‘Fish, flows and floodplains: links between freshwater ecology and water management in Australia’, Environmental Biology of Fishes, vol. 64, pp. 129–151.
Jacobs, J et al. 2020, ‘Restoring fish migration corridors in the Barwon Basin’, Ecological Management & Restoration, 21(3), pp. 214–226.
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McDowall, RM 1988, Diadromy in Fishes: Migrations Between Freshwater and Marine Environments, Croom Helm, London.
McNiven, IJ & Bell, D 2010, ‘Budj Bim eel traps and the archaeology of Indigenous aquaculture’, Antiquity, 84(324), pp. 971–985.
Miller, MJ et al. 2015, ‘Spawning by eels and the larval ecology’, Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol. 526, pp. 123–142.
Ryan, L 2012, Tasmanian Aborigines: A History Since 1803, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
Tsukamoto, K 1992, ‘Discovery of the spawning area for Japanese eel’, Nature, vol. 356, pp. 789–791.
UNESCO 2019, Budj Bim Cultural Landscape World Heritage Nomination Document, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris.
VACL (Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages) 2022, Language Revival and Naming Project Reports, Melbourne.
Victorian Fisheries Authority (VFA) 2020, Eel Fishery Status Report, Victorian Government, Melbourne.
Wadawurrung Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation (TOAC) 2023, Cultural Knowledge and Country Resources, Geelong.
Magic Lands Alliance
Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land and community.
Copyright of MLA – 2025
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter and Uncle Reg Abrahams 16/09/2025
Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.