Native Animals History and Science
Introduction
The Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax) is Australia’s largest bird of prey and one of the most spiritually and ecologically significant animals in Victoria. With a wingspan reaching up to 2.8 metres, the eagle dominates the skies above forests, volcanic plains, mountains, coastlines, and river systems across south-eastern Australia. Scientifically, it functions as an apex aerial predator and scavenger essential to ecological balance. Culturally, among Wadawurrung, Wurundjeri Woi Wurrung, Bunurong/Boonwurrung, Taungurung, Dja Dja Wurrung, and broader Kulin Nation communities, the eagle is known as Bunjil — the creator ancestor, lore-giver, protector, and spiritual guardian of Country (Clark 1990; Howitt 1904). For thousands of generations, Bunjil has remained central to creation stories, kinship systems, environmental knowledge, astronomy, ceremony, and cultural identity across Victoria. The story of the wedge-tailed eagle therefore bridges ecology, deep-time evolution, spirituality, sky lore, colonisation, conservation, and contemporary cultural renewal.
The Wedge-tailed Eagle in Ecology and Science
The Wedge-tailed Eagle is easily recognised by:
its immense size,
wedge-shaped tail,
long soaring wings,
and powerful flight.
As an apex predator and scavenger, the eagle performs vital ecological functions across Victorian ecosystems (Olsen 2005).
These include:
regulating prey populations,
removing carrion and diseased animals,
stabilising food webs,
and maintaining biodiversity balance.
Eagles feed on rabbits, reptiles, wallabies, possums, kangaroos, birds, and carrion (Marchant & Higgins 1993). Their enormous territories can stretch across alpine forests, volcanic plains, open woodland, coastal cliffs, and arid landscapes. Pairs often build large stick nests — called eyries — high within eucalypts or cliff systems, reusing them for decades. Scientific research confirms that wedge-tailed eagles possess eyesight several times sharper than human vision and can soar for hours using thermal air currents with minimal energy expenditure (Olsen 2005). Long before modern science documented these abilities, Indigenous communities had already recognised the eagle as a being of extraordinary awareness, observation, and environmental intelligence.
Origins and Deep Time: The Evolution of Eagles
The ancestry of eagles stretches back tens of millions of years. Birds of prey within the Accipitridae family first evolved during the Eocene Epoch approximately 56–34 million years ago, when early raptors adapted to soaring flight and aerial hunting (Mayr 2009). By the Miocene Epoch approximately 23–5 million years ago, expanding grasslands and changing climates supported the diversification of large soaring eagles adapted for open-country hunting (Mayr 2009; Olsen 2005). Fossil evidence demonstrates that eagle-like raptors existed in Australia long before human arrival. During the Pleistocene, giant predatory birds coexisted with Australian megafauna across ancient ecosystems (Boles 2006).
The modern wedge-tailed eagle evolved through immense environmental changes including:
volcanic activity,
drought cycles,
ice-age climate shifts,
sea-level rise,
and changing fire regimes.
Its survival across these deep-time changes reflects extraordinary adaptability and ecological resilience. For Indigenous communities, this endurance reinforces the eagle’s role as a timeless ancestral being connecting present generations to ancient Country.
Bunjil the Eagle Creator
Creation Story of Bunjil
Within Kulin Nation traditions, Bunjil is one of the central ancestral creator beings of south-eastern Australia. Bunjil is not simply an eagle in the Western biological sense, but a creator spirit connected to the formation of land, sky, animals, waterways, kinship systems, and cultural lore (Howitt 1904; Clark 1990).
According to oral traditions, in the beginning the world was dark, flat, and empty. Bunjil travelled across Country with ancestral helpers and spirit beings. Together they created:
mountains,
rivers,
forests,
waterholes,
animals,
plants,
and people.
Bunjil then established laws, responsibilities, kinship systems, and social obligations so communities could live in balance with each other and with Country. After creation was complete, Bunjil ascended into the sky, where he became associated with the stars and the heavens. In many traditions, the wedge-tailed eagle soaring high above Country represents Bunjil continuing to watch over the land and its people.
Bunjil symbolises:
creation and order,
wisdom and leadership,
protection,
spiritual authority,
and responsibility to Country.
Across Wadawurrung Country and broader Kulin lands, sightings of eagles continue to hold deep spiritual and cultural significance connected to Bunjil’s enduring presence.
Waa the Crow and the Balance of Creation
Alongside Bunjil stands Waa the Crow (sometimes interpreted as Raven in English). Waa is another major ancestral being within Kulin cosmology and represents transformation, communication, intelligence, adaptability, and balance (Flood 1983; Howitt 1904).
Where Bunjil represents:
creation,
structure,
spiritual authority,
and law,
Waa represents:
movement,
questioning,
transformation,
and communication between worlds.
Together, Bunjil and Waa form complementary forces within Kulin cosmology. This relationship reflects an Indigenous understanding that balance is essential within both nature and society.
Within the Kulin moiety system:
Bunjil (Eaglehawk) and
Waa (Crow)
formed the two great ancestral divisions governing kinship, social structure, ceremony, and responsibility. Every person, animal, and element of Country belonged symbolically to one of these moieties, reinforcing interconnection and social balance throughout community life (Clark 1990).
Eagles, Hawks and Sky Lore
Within Indigenous sky lore systems, eagles, hawks, crows, and ravens were understood not merely as birds, but as active participants within the living story of Country.
The wedge-tailed eagle soaring at immense height became associated with:
vision,
foresight,
awareness,
spiritual oversight,
and connection between sky and earth.
Communities carefully observed eagle behaviour to understand:
weather changes,
thermal wind currents,
seasonal transitions,
prey movement,
and ecological health.
Hawks were often viewed symbolically between Bunjil and Waa, representing:
vigilance,
justice,
discernment,
swift action,
and balance between strength and restraint.
These systems formed part of sophisticated Indigenous environmental sciences linking astronomy, ecology, ceremony, kinship, and cultural lore.
Indigenous Astronomy and Bunjil in the Sky
Bunjil’s story extends beyond the land into the stars. Within Kulin astronomy traditions, Bunjil is often associated with Altair, the brightest star within the constellation Aquila — Latin for Eagle (Hamacher 2012). His movement across the night sky became connected to seasonal knowledge, ceremony, navigation, and spiritual teaching. Nearby stars are sometimes described as Bunjil’s companions or wives accompanying him across the heavens. Other constellations and celestial patterns also connect to Kulin stories concerning balance, law, life cycles, and the relationship between darkness and light. The sky therefore became a living continuation of Country itself — not separate from the land, but deeply interconnected with it.
Language and the Meaning of Bunjil
Within Woiwurrung, Wadawurrung, Boonwurrung, and related Kulin languages, Bunjil refers both to the wedge-tailed eagle and to the creator ancestor himself (Blake 1991). This dual meaning reflects how Indigenous languages often describe animals not only biologically, but spiritually, ecologically, and relationally.
Across many Indigenous Australian languages, bird names may describe:
behaviour,
movement,
ecological role,
spiritual significance,
or ancestral identity.
Although colonisation severely disrupted language transmission across Victoria, Traditional Owner groups and language revival organisations continue rebuilding bird vocabulary, oral histories, and cultural teachings through education and intergenerational renewal programs (VACL 2022).
Colonisation and the Hunting of Eagles
During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, wedge-tailed eagles were heavily persecuted throughout Victoria as European pastoral settlement expanded across Kulin Nation lands. Settlers viewed eagles as threats to sheep farming and introduced bounty systems encouraging widespread shooting, trapping, and poisoning of the birds (Rolls 1969; Coman 1999). Historic photographs show rows of dead wedge-tailed eagles hanging from fences as symbols of colonial control over the land. For Indigenous communities, this violence carried profound spiritual consequences because the wedge-tailed eagle was Bunjil — the creator and lawgiver himself. The destruction of eagles therefore represented:
ecological harm,
cultural violation,
disruption of sacred balance,
and symbolic attacks on Indigenous identity and connection to Country.
Large-scale land clearing also destroyed nesting habitats and disrupted environmental systems that had existed for thousands of years. Despite these impacts, Bunjil traditions survived through Elders, oral history, ceremony, art, and cultural resilience.
Bunjil Sites Across Victoria
Many places across Victoria remain spiritually and culturally connected to Bunjil.
These include:
the You Yangs and Bunjil’s Shelter,
Gariwerd (Grampians),
Wadawurrung volcanic plains,
Mount William,
the Lerderderg Ranges,
and numerous river valleys and mountain systems across Kulin Country.
Modern sites such as Bunjil Place in Narre Warren, and the Bunjil Eagle sculpture at Docklands Melbourne, continue honouring Bunjil’s ongoing cultural presence and significance. These landscapes remain places where ecology, story, spirit, and Country continue to intersect.
Conservation and Cultural Renewal
Today, wedge-tailed eagles are legally protected under Victorian wildlife legislation. Although populations have recovered in some areas, threats remain from:
habitat destruction,
poisoning,
wind infrastructure collisions,
vehicle strikes,
and land clearing.
Traditional Owner groups, conservation agencies, educators, and community organisations increasingly collaborate to integrate Indigenous ecological knowledge into conservation programs and cultural education initiatives (DEECA 2021).
Across Victoria, younger generations continue learning about:
Bunjil,
Waa,
Indigenous sky lore,
eagle ecology,
language revival,
and responsibility to Country.
Symbolism and Modern Identity
Today, Bunjil remains one of the most powerful symbols within Victoria.
The wedge-tailed eagle continues representing:
resilience,
leadership,
spiritual awareness,
freedom,
vision,
cultural continuity,
and ecological balance.
For many Indigenous communities, the eagle is a living reminder that land, sky, spirit, law, and people remain interconnected. The survival of the wedge-tailed eagle therefore reflects both ecological endurance and the continuing strength of Indigenous knowledge and cultural identity across Victoria.
Conclusion
The story of the wedge-tailed eagle and Bunjil is one of deep-time continuity, ecological intelligence, spiritual meaning, and cultural resilience. Long before colonisation, the eagle was recognised across Kulin Nation traditions as creator, protector, lawgiver, and guardian of balance between sky, land, people, and spirit. Through the story of Bunjil and Waa, Indigenous communities developed sophisticated systems of astronomy, ecology, kinship, ceremony, and environmental responsibility grounded in Country itself. Although colonisation disrupted many cultural and ecological systems, the wedge-tailed eagle continues soaring above Victoria’s mountains, plains, forests, and coastlines as an enduring symbol of creation, resilience, and connection. To protect the eagle today is not only an ecological responsibility, but also an act of cultural respect toward one of the oldest continuing knowledge systems on Earth.
References
Blake, BJ 1991, Woiwurrung: The Melbourne Language of the Kulin Nation, Pacific Linguistics, Canberra.
Boles, WE 2006, ‘Fossil birds of Australia’, in Evolution and Biogeography of Australasian Vertebrates, eds Merrick, JR, Archer, M, Hickey, GM & Lee, MSY, Auscipub, Sydney, pp. 387–429.
Broome, R 2005, Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
Clark, ID 1990, Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria, 1800–1900, Monash Publications in Geography, Melbourne.
Clarke, PA 1997, ‘The Aboriginal Cosmic Landscape of Southern Australia’, Records of the South Australian Museum, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 1–14.
Coman, BJ 1999, Tooth and Nail: The Story of the Rabbit in Australia, Text Publishing, Melbourne.
Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action (DEECA) 2021, Victorian Biodiversity Atlas and Wildlife Conservation Strategy, Victorian Government, Melbourne.
Flood, J 1983, Archaeology of the Dreamtime, Collins, Sydney.
Hamacher, DW 2012, ‘On the Astronomical Knowledge and Traditions of Aboriginal Australians’, Archaeoastronomy, vol. 25, pp. 39–55.
Howitt, AW 1904, The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, Macmillan, London.
Marchant, S & Higgins, PJ 1993, Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds: Raptors to Lapwings, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Mayr, G 2009, Paleogene Fossil Birds, Springer, Berlin.
Olsen, P 2005, Wedge-tailed Eagle, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Rolls, EC 1969, They All Ran Wild: The Animals and Plants that Plague Australia, Angus & Robertson, Sydney.
Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL) 2022, Language Revival and Naming Project Reports, Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages, Melbourne.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter and Uncle Reg Abrahams 16/04/2026
MLA Educational Articles
Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land and community.
Copyright of MLA – 2025
Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter 16/09/2025
MLA Educational Articles
Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land and community.
Copyright of MLA – 2025
Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.