Abstract

Middens are among the most significant archaeological and cultural sites across Australia. Often consisting of layers of shell, charcoal, bone, stone artefacts, and organic material accumulated over thousands of years, middens provide evidence of long-term Indigenous occupation, environmental management, coastal economies, and cultural continuity. In Victoria, especially across Wadawurrung Country and the broader Kulin Nations, midden sites line coastlines, river systems, wetlands, and estuaries, demonstrating sophisticated ecological knowledge and enduring relationships between people and Country.

For many years, colonial archaeology misunderstood middens as simple “rubbish heaps.” Contemporary Indigenous and archaeological perspectives now recognise middens as highly significant cultural landscapes that contain scientific, historical, ecological, and spiritual knowledge (Lourandos 1980; Clark 1990). They reveal seasonal harvesting systems, sustainable marine resource management, ceremonial gathering places, and evidence of changing coastlines and climate over thousands of years.

This MLA educational article explores the science, archaeology, ecology, and Indigenous cultural significance of midden sites in Victoria and Australia. Focusing particularly on Wadawurrung Country and Kulin Nations coastal regions, the article examines how middens formed, what they reveal about Indigenous life, the impacts of colonisation and coastal destruction, and why these sites should be protected under cultural heritage and environmental law. Integrating archaeology, anthropology, ecology, Indigenous studies, geology, and environmental science, this article argues that middens are not only archaeological records but living cultural archives central to Indigenous sovereignty and truth-telling.

Introduction: What Are Middens?

A midden is an accumulation of cultural material left through repeated human activity over time. In Australia, middens commonly contain:

• Shellfish remains

• Fish bones

• Animal bones

• Charcoal and ash

• Stone tools

• Hearth material

• Ochre and artefacts

The word “midden” derives from Old Scandinavian and Middle English terms meaning refuse heap or domestic waste pile (Oxford English Dictionary 2024). However, Indigenous midden sites are far more than ancient rubbish dumps. They are evidence of long-term occupation, ecological management, ceremony, trade, and social gathering.

Across Australia, middens can range from:

• Small shell deposits

• Riverbank camps

• Massive coastal shell mounds several metres high

Some midden systems are thousands of years old and provide some of the oldest archaeological evidence of human coastal occupation in Australia (Lourandos 1980).

The Science Behind Midden Formation

Middens formed gradually through repeated seasonal occupation and harvesting practices. Coastal and riverine Indigenous communities collected shellfish, fish, birds, marsupials, and plant foods, leaving remains in concentrated areas over generations.

Scientific analysis of middens reveals:

• Dietary systems

• Seasonal food harvesting

• Climate patterns

• Environmental change

• Sea-level history

• Trade networks

• Technological development

Archaeologists use radiocarbon dating, stratigraphy, soil analysis, faunal analysis, and shell chemistry to determine the age, environmental conditions, and ecological history of midden deposits (Lourandos 1997). Shells within middens can also preserve information about ancient ocean temperatures, tidal systems, and environmental conditions. Middens therefore operate as both cultural and environmental archives.

Middens and Indigenous Ecological Knowledge

Indigenous Australians developed highly sustainable harvesting systems adapted to local ecosystems over thousands of years (Pascoe 2014). Middens demonstrate:

• Seasonal harvesting cycles

• Selective shellfish gathering

• Marine ecological knowledge

• Resource sustainability

• Long-term environmental management

Many midden sites reveal harvesting practices that avoided overexploitation. Shellfish populations remained stable because Indigenous communities harvested according to seasonal availability and ecological balance. For Indigenous peoples, marine systems were governed through lore, kinship obligations, and responsibilities to Country. Middens therefore reflect both survival and sophisticated environmental governance.

Wadawurrung Country and Coastal Midden Systems

On Wadawurrung Country across Geelong, the Bellarine Peninsula, Surf Coast, and Corio Bay regions, extensive midden systems exist along coastlines, estuaries, wetlands, and river mouths (Clark 1990).

These middens contain:

• Mussel shells

• Oyster shells

• Abalone remains

• Fish bone deposits

• Hearth sites

• Stone artefacts

Wadawurrung communities maintained strong relationships with:

• Coastal food systems

• Eel and fish migration

• Wetland ecology

• Tidal movement

• Seasonal gathering practices

Major coastal zones such as:

• Point Lonsdale

• Barwon Heads

• Lake Connewarre

• Swan Bay

• Bellarine coastlines

contain important cultural heritage areas connected to thousands of years of occupation.

Many midden sites also functioned as:

• Teaching places

• Ceremony locations

• Seasonal camps

• Trade and gathering areas

Country itself functioned as a living cultural system.

Kulin Nations and Victorian Midden Networks

Across the broader Kulin Nations, middens appear throughout:

• Port Phillip Bay

• Western Port

• Gippsland Lakes

• Murray River systems

• Volcanic plains waterways

These sites demonstrate extensive trade and movement networks connecting communities across Victoria (Broome 2005).

Riverine middens often contain:

• Freshwater mussels

• Fish remains

• Stone tool production evidence

Coastal middens reveal deep maritime knowledge and adaptation to changing sea levels over thousands of years. Some Victorian middens date back more than 6,000 years, formed after post-Ice Age sea-level rise reshaped the coastline (Bird & Frankel 1991).

Middens as Archaeological and Historical Archives

Middens are among the most important archaeological records in Australia because they preserve evidence of:

• Long-term habitation

• Climate adaptation

• Technological development

• Social organisation

• Trade systems

• Marine economies

Archaeologist Harry Lourandos argued that Australian Indigenous societies developed increasingly complex economies and social systems over time rather than remaining static hunter-gatherer societies (Lourandos 1980; 1997). Midden systems support this interpretation through evidence of:

• Resource intensification

• Long-distance exchange

• Permanent and semi-permanent occupation

Ian Clark’s research on Victorian Indigenous history and cultural landscapes further demonstrates the importance of protecting these sites as living records of Indigenous sovereignty and occupation (Clark 1990; 1995).

Colonial Destruction and Coastal Development

Since European colonisation, many midden sites across Victoria and Australia have been:

• Destroyed by urban development

• Damaged through agriculture

• Quarried for lime production

• Eroded through coastal engineering

• Looted for artefacts

In the nineteenth century, shell middens were sometimes mined and burnt to produce lime for construction materials. Colonial settlers frequently viewed middens as empty shell deposits rather than sacred cultural heritage sites.

Urbanisation around:

• Melbourne

• Geelong

• Port Phillip

• Coastal tourism areas

has caused major destruction to midden landscapes.

This destruction represents not only archaeological loss, but damage to living Indigenous cultural memory and connection to Country.

Cultural Heritage Law and Protection

Today, midden sites are protected under various heritage and cultural laws, including:

• Aboriginal Heritage Act 2006 (Victoria)

• Native Title legislation

• Cultural heritage management plans

• Environmental protection laws

However, many Indigenous communities argue existing protections remain inadequate due to:

• Development pressure

• Mining projects

• Coastal erosion

• Lack of Indigenous authority in decision-making

Traditional Owners increasingly advocate for:

• Greater cultural governance

• Indigenous-led site management

• Stronger legal protections

• Truth-telling around destruction of heritage sites

The destruction of Juukan Gorge in Western Australia in 2020 highlighted national concerns regarding the vulnerability of Indigenous heritage under industrial development.

Middens, Climate Change, and Rising Seas

Climate change increasingly threatens coastal midden systems through:

• Sea-level rise

• Coastal erosion

• Storm surges

• Acidification

• Increased weather extremes

Many midden sites located near beaches, estuaries, and dunes are at risk of irreversible loss.

Ironically, middens themselves contain valuable scientific evidence about:

• Ancient climate systems

• Coastal change

• Sea-level fluctuations

• Environmental adaptation over thousands of years

Protecting middens therefore supports both cultural heritage and climate science.

Anthropology and the Misunderstanding of Middens

For much of colonial history, anthropology and archaeology underestimated Indigenous Australian societies. Middens were often interpreted through European assumptions about primitiveness and subsistence living.

Modern research increasingly challenges these misconceptions. Midden systems demonstrate:

• Long-term environmental planning

• Sophisticated marine knowledge

• Seasonal economies

• Social organisation

• Sustainable harvesting practices

Lourandos’ concept of “intensification” helped reshape understandings of Australian Indigenous societies as dynamic, adaptive, and technologically sophisticated (Lourandos 1997).

Psychology, Memory, and Connection to Place

Midden sites also hold deep emotional and psychological significance for Indigenous communities. They represent:

• Ancestors

• Family continuity

• Shared gathering places

• Story and memory

• Connection to Country

For many communities, visiting midden sites reinforces identity, belonging, and intergenerational continuity.

The destruction of midden sites therefore impacts not only archaeology but cultural wellbeing and community memory.

Indigenous Sovereignty and Living Heritage

Importantly, middens are not relics of extinct cultures. They remain part of living Indigenous landscapes connected to ongoing cultural practice and sovereignty.

Traditional Owners across Victoria continue:

• Caring for coastal Country

• Teaching younger generations

• Revitalising language and ecological knowledge

• Protecting cultural heritage

Middens therefore represent continuing Indigenous presence rather than merely ancient history.

Conclusion

Middens across Victoria and Australia are among the most significant records of Indigenous cultural, ecological, and historical knowledge. Far from being simple refuse heaps, they are living archives documenting thousands of years of occupation, marine science, seasonal harvesting, ceremony, and connection to Country. On Wadawurrung Country and throughout the broader Kulin Nations, midden systems reveal highly sophisticated environmental management and enduring coastal relationships shaped over millennia. Modern archaeology and environmental science increasingly confirm what Indigenous communities have always known: these landscapes contain deep knowledge, memory, and law/lore. Yet many midden sites remain threatened by urban development, climate change, erosion, and insufficient heritage protection. Protecting these places is essential not only for archaeology and environmental science, but for truth-telling, Indigenous sovereignty, cultural continuity, and future generations. Middens are therefore not simply remnants of the past. They are continuing expressions of Indigenous presence, ecological intelligence, and connection to Country across Australia.

References

Bird, C.F.M. & Frankel, D. (1991) Excavations at Koongine Cave. Occasional Papers in Prehistory.

Broome, R. (2005) Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800. Allen & Unwin.

Clark, I.D. (1990) Aboriginal Languages and Clans. Monash Publications in Geography.

Clark, I.D. (1995) Scars in the Landscape. Aboriginal Studies Press.

Lourandos, H. (1980) ‘Change or Stability? Hydraulics, Hunter-Gatherers and Population in Temperate Australia’, World Archaeology.

Lourandos, H. (1997) Continent of Hunter-Gatherers. Cambridge University Press.

Oxford English Dictionary (2024) Midden, n.

Pascoe, B. (2014) Dark Emu. Magabala Books.

Rose, D.B. (1996) Nourishing Terrains. Australian Heritage Commission.

Victorian Aboriginal Heritage Council (2023) Aboriginal Cultural Heritage in Victoria.

UNESCO (2020) Juukan Gorge and Indigenous Heritage Protection.

Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter (22 September 2025)

MLA Educational Articles

Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land, and community.
www.magiclandsalliance.org

Copyright MLA – 2025

Magic Lands Alliance acknowledges the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay respect to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples’ communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of their respective communities.