Country History
Giants of Deep Time and Keepers of Memory
Long before the arrival of people, and long before the modern kangaroo or koala, Victoria was home to a spectacular array of ancient animals — giant marsupials, towering birds, massive reptiles, and the ancestors of today’s species. These beings — among them the Diprotodon, Thylacoleo (marsupial lion), Megalania, Giant Echidna, and the great flightless Cassowary relatives — roamed the forests, wetlands, and volcanic plains for millions of years. For Indigenous peoples, the memory of these creatures survives in story, art, and place. In many oral traditions, these “Old Beings” are spirit ancestors, whose forms shaped the land and whose bones still rest beneath it. For scientists, they represent the ancient evolutionary history of the continent — a lineage that tells of isolation, adaptation, and extinction over deep time (Flannery 1994; Archer 1984).
Together, science and story show that these great animals are not gone; their legacy remains in the landforms, fossils, and living species that evolved from them.
Deep-Time and Cultural Timeline
The history of Victoria’s ancient animals begins more than 65 million years ago, when the supercontinent Gondwana was breaking apart. In this era, early marsupials and flightless birds emerged in dense rainforest ecosystems that covered much of southern Australia. By the Eocene and Miocene epochs (55–5 million years ago), unique Australian species had evolved in isolation — including primitive kangaroos, koalas, and cassowary-like birds adapted to the subtropical forests that then dominated Victoria (Archer 1984; Boles 2006).
During the Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million–10,000 years ago), the land began to dry and cool. Vast grasslands and open forests replaced ancient jungles, creating space for the rise of megafauna — giant versions of familiar animals.
Victoria became home to immense creatures:
Diprotodon optatum, a wombat-like grazer the size of a rhinoceros.
Thylacoleo carnifex, the “marsupial lion”, a powerful predator with retractable claws.
Zygomaturus, a semi-aquatic herbivore that browsed wetlands.
Genyornis newtoni, a giant flightless bird related to modern cassowaries.
Megalania prisca, an enormous monitor lizard, the largest reptile known to have lived in Australia.
These animals were part of a rich ecosystem that also included early humans and many species that would later evolve into today’s marsupials.
More than 40,000 years ago, the first Indigenous peoples arrived and coexisted with many of these animals. Through time and observation, they recorded encounters with these giants in oral histories, rock engravings, and Dreaming stories — narratives that describe great bird-beings, giant reptiles, and ancient mammals transforming into mountains, rivers, and stars. By around 30,000–15,000 years ago, many of these large animals had disappeared, likely due to a combination of climate change, drought, and human activity (Roberts et al. 2001). Yet their presence continued in story and ceremony, reminding people of the responsibility to care for Country and its remaining life.
Today, fossil remains in sites such as Buchan Caves, Tower Hill, Lake Colongulac, and the Moorabool Valley keep the story of these ancient animals alive — a bridge between prehistory, Indigenous law, and modern science.
Ecology and Behaviour of Ancient Animals
Although much about these species is reconstructed from fossil evidence, scientists and Traditional knowledge together provide insight into how they lived, moved, and interacted with the land.
Diprotodon optatum – the largest marsupial ever to exist, weighing over two tonnes. Herbivorous and migratory, it browsed eucalyptus and saltbush, shaping vegetation patterns much like modern kangaroos.
Thylacoleo carnifex (Marsupial Lion) – an apex predator of forests and plains; powerful forelimbs and sharp incisors made it a formidable hunter.
Genyornis newtoni (Giant Bird) – a towering, cassowary-like species unable to fly; its large eggs have been found in archaeological contexts, suggesting coexistence with humans.
Zygomaturus trilobus – semi-aquatic, feeding on reeds and wetland plants; possibly related to stories of water spirits in southern Victoria.
Megalania prisca – a giant goanna, up to 7 metres long, dominating dry woodlands and savannas.
These animals filled ecological roles similar to those of elephants, lions, and rhinos elsewhere — shaping soil, dispersing seeds, and maintaining ecological balance across Australia’s ancient landscapes.
Ancient Animals in Indigenous Knowledge and Story
Across Victoria, Indigenous Nations remember the megafauna through ancestral stories and landscape memory. In Gunditjmara Country near Budj Bim, volcanic plains and lava channels are said to have been formed by great serpents and thunder-beings. The Wadawurrung and Wurundjeri remember giant birds and lizards that once roamed the plains — beings that transformed into stone or hill when the law of Country was broken. In northern Victoria, stories of giant wombat beings that shaped valleys and burrows echo the memory of Diprotodon, whose fossil bones have been found near ancient waterways.
These stories encode ecological and moral knowledge: they warn of imbalance, greed, and the loss that follows disrespect for life. Through ceremony and oral tradition, these “first ancestors” remain active — not fossils of the past, but spiritual presences guiding people to care for Country in the present (Clarke 2009; Flood 1983).
Sites and Fossil Heritage
Victoria holds some of the most significant fossil deposits in southern Australia.
Buchan and Naracoorte Caves – preserve remains of megafauna that fell into sinkholes during the Pleistocene.
Tower Hill (near Warrnambool) – volcanic sediments contain fossils of large birds and mammals; local Indigenous stories recall a fiery eruption witnessed by ancestors over 30,000 years ago.
Lancefield Swamp – famous for extensive Diprotodon fossils, showing herds of these animals gathering around drying waterholes.
Port Campbell and Otway coastal cliffs – yield marine fossils showing the transition between ancient inland seas and today’s Southern Ocean.
These places are both scientific archives and cultural sites, connecting geology, ecology, and Indigenous law.
Colonial Discovery and Early Science
European settlers first found “giant bones” in Victoria in the mid-19th century, often mistaking them for elephants or mythical creatures. Early naturalists such as Sir Frederick McCoy and William Blandowski collected fossils along the Murray and in Western Victoria, marking the beginning of Australian palaeontology. However, many early excavations ignored or displaced Indigenous interpretations and custodianship of fossil sites. Modern researchers now work with Traditional Owners to reinterpret these discoveries through both cultural and scientific lenses — recognising that the first palaeontologists of this continent were the storytellers who remembered the Old Beings in story and song.
Modern Science and Conservation
Today, ancient animals inform both scientific research and ecological restoration. Palaeontology continues to reveal how these megafauna influenced vegetation, fire, and soil processes — knowledge vital to restoring balance in modern ecosystems. Some scientists propose that understanding megafaunal roles could guide “rewilding” programs, using species such as kangaroos, wombats, and emus to mimic ancient ecological functions (Johnson 2006).
Partnerships between researchers and Traditional Owners ensure that fossil studies respect cultural heritage. At places like Lake Callabonna and Cuddie Springs, archaeological and Indigenous teams collaborate to protect fossil layers while reawakening story connections with ancestral beings.
Symbolism and Meaning
Indigenous meaning: Ancient animals are spirit ancestors — reminders of the deep time of Country and the consequences of imbalance.
Scientific meaning: Fossils reveal the continent’s evolutionary independence and resilience through changing climates.
Cultural meaning: These beings embody awe and humility — symbols of how life and land are entwined across millions of years.
To remember them is to recognise that Country is alive with memory — that the bones beneath the earth still speak.
Conclusion
The ancient animals of Victoria were not merely prehistoric giants; they were the first custodians of balance — beings that walked before humans but whose lessons endure. Their fossils, resting in caves, swamps, and stone, record a history of evolution, extinction, and survival, while Indigenous stories keep their spirits alive as teachers of respect and restraint. By uniting Traditional knowledge and modern science, Victoria is rediscovering the deep-time narrative of Country — one where humans are part of a vast, ongoing lineage of life. The Old Beings remind us that to care for Country is to honour the giants who came before, and to ensure that the future remains fertile, balanced, and alive.
References
Archer, M. (1984). The Australian Marsupial Radiation. Surrey Beatty, Sydney.
Boles, W.E. (2006). “Fossil birds of Australia.” In Evolution and Biogeography of Australasian Vertebrates (Eds Merrick et al.), Auscipub, Sydney, pp. 387–429.
Clarke, P.A. (2009). Australian Aboriginal Ethnobotany and Palaeontology: Linking Story and Stone. Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra.
Flannery, T. (1994). The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People. Reed Books, Sydney.
Flood, J. (1983). Archaeology of the Dreamtime. Collins, Sydney.
Johnson, C.N. (2006). Australia’s Mammal Extinctions: A 50,000-Year History. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Roberts, R.G. et al. (2001). “New ages for the last Australian megafauna: continent-wide extinction about 46,000 years ago.” Science, 292(5523): 1888–1892.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter 16/09/2025
Magic Lands Alliance
Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land and community.
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Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.