Country History
Ecology in Victoria and Australia: Indigenous Stewardship, Colonisation, and Restoration
Before European colonisation in 1788, the Australian continent sustained some of the world’s most diverse and ancient ecosystems. For over 60,000 years, Indigenous communities maintained these environments through finely tuned systems of ecological knowledge, law, and custodianship. In Victoria, landscapes of grasslands, forests, wetlands, and coasts were shaped by cultural burning, aquaculture, and sustainable harvesting.
Colonisation radically disrupted these systems. Land clearing, grazing, mining, and introduced species transformed ecosystems within decades. Today, scientists and Traditional Owners are working together to restore ecological balance, reviving Indigenous land management practices alongside modern conservation science (Gammage, 2011; Pascoe, 2014; Bowman, 2020).
Pre-Colonial Ecology of Victoria and Australia
Biodiversity and Landscapes
Victoria’s ecosystems once included volcanic plains, eucalypt woodlands, alpine regions, wetlands, and coastal zones (Clark, 1990).
Grasslands dominated by kangaroo grass (Themeda triandra) supported large populations of kangaroos, wallabies, emus, and diverse birdlife.
Wetlands teemed with eels, fish, and waterfowl, as well as edible plants like murnong (Microseris walteri, yam daisy).
Alpine areas provided bogong moths, possums, and timber for seasonal harvests.
Across the continent, Indigenous ecological systems thrived in harmony with fire, variable rainfall, and nutrient-poor soils (Gammage, 2011; Bowman, 2020).
Indigenous Ecological Knowledge and Land Stewardship
Victorian Indigenous Nations such as the Kulin, Gunditjmara, Wadawurrung, and Yorta Yorta sustained landscapes through complex practices integrating ecology and spirituality:
Fire-stick Farming
Controlled, low-intensity burns created mosaic fire patterns, promoting biodiversity and reducing fuel loads.
Fire encouraged fresh plant growth for grazing animals and stimulated seed germination (Gammage, 2011; Bowman, 2020).
Aquaculture and Water Management
The Gunditjmara engineered the Budj Bim eel traps, using stone channels and weirs to regulate water flow and sustain eel harvests for thousands of years (McNiven & Bell, 2010; UNESCO, 2019).
These aquaculture systems exemplify early forms of ecological engineering and landscape design.
Selective Harvesting
Plants such as murnong were dug using wooden tools that left crowns intact for regrowth.
Hunting laws were guided by seasonal calendars and totemic obligations, ensuring sustainable yields (Pascoe, 2014; Broome, 2005).
Totemic Responsibilities
Kinship law tied individuals and families to species such as the kangaroo, eel, or crow, making them custodians rather than consumers of those beings (Rose, 1996).
This totemic framework acted as a moral and ecological code for biodiversity protection.
Impacts of Colonisation on Ecology
Land Seizure and Grazing
From the 1830s, squatter licenses legalised the occupation and grazing of Indigenous land.
Sheep and cattle overgrazed fragile grasslands, destroying yam daisy fields and causing food shortages among Indigenous communities (Broome, 2005; Critchett, 1990).
Wetlands and waterholes were drained for farming, collapsing eel and bird populations.
Frontier Violence and Displacement
Indigenous ecological management was violently suppressed; burning practices were criminalised, and custodians were forced from their Country (Reynolds, 1987; Attwood, 2003).
Missions and reserves prohibited ceremonial gatherings that had regulated hunting and land use.
Ecological Collapse
Deforestation for timber and agriculture caused erosion, salinity, and the loss of hollow trees vital for cockatoos, parrots, and possums.
Species such as bettongs, bandicoots, and quolls vanished from much of Victoria (Bowman, 2020).
Introduced species — rabbits, foxes, cats, and invasive weeds — destabilised ecosystems and outcompeted native fauna (DAWE, 2020).
Scientific Evidence
Palaeoecological data (charcoal, pollen records) reveal a steep decline in fire-adapted species following the suppression of Indigenous burning (Bowman, 2020).
Soil analysis shows increased erosion and nutrient depletion from grazing and deforestation.
Biodiversity records confirm that over 100 native species have gone extinct in Australia since colonisation — among the world’s highest extinction rates (CSIRO, 2022).
Reviving and Restoring Ecology
Revival of Indigenous Knowledge
Cultural burning is being reintroduced by Nations such as Dja Dja Wurrung, Taungurung, Gunditjmara, and Gunaikurnai, supported by Parks Victoria and the Firesticks Alliance (DELWP, 2023).
Budj Bim’s UNESCO listing (2019) formally recognised Indigenous ecological engineering and world heritage value.
Language and story revitalisation reconnect ecological knowledge with cultural identity.
Conservation Science
Restoration ecology aims to rehabilitate grasslands, wetlands, and forests through revegetation and weed control.
Rewilding programs reintroduce species such as the Eastern Barred Bandicoot and Brush-tailed Bettong into protected landscapes.
Fire ecology studies confirm that Indigenous-style burns enhance biodiversity compared to fire suppression (Bowman, 2020; CSIRO, 2022).
Climate Change and the Future
Indigenous fire management is now recognised as an essential strategy to mitigate bushfire risk, particularly after the 2019–20 Black Summer fires (Hunt & Smith, 2021).
Combining traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) with climate science provides adaptive frameworks for managing drought, flood, and biodiversity loss.
Collaborative governance models between scientists and Traditional Owners embody the principle of “two-way learning” — science and culture in dialogue.
Conclusion
The ecological history of Victoria and Australia demonstrates that Indigenous peoples were active environmental engineers and stewards of Country, not passive inhabitants. Their sophisticated management systems produced some of the world’s oldest sustainable economies.
Colonisation disrupted these interconnected systems, resulting in ecological and cultural devastation. Yet through partnerships between Traditional Owners and scientists, restoration is underway.
Reviving fire-stick farming, aquaculture, and totemic custodianship—combined with restoration ecology—offers a path toward a balanced, resilient landscape.
The lesson is clear: sustainability requires walking together, drawing equally on ancient Indigenous custodianship and modern ecological science to heal Country and protect biodiversity for generations to come.
References
Atkinson, W. (2002). Not One Iota: The Yorta Yorta Struggle for Land Justice. Melbourne: Aboriginal Studies Press.
Attwood, B. (2003). Rights for Aborigines. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Bowman, D.M.J.S. (2020). Australian Fire Regimes: A Historical and Contemporary Overview. Melbourne: CSIRO Publishing.
Broome, R. (2005). Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Clark, I.D. (1990). Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria, 1800–1900. Melbourne: Monash Publications in Geography.
Critchett, J. (1990). A Distant Field of Murder: Western District Frontiers 1834–1848. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press.
CSIRO (2022). Indigenous Fire and Land Management in a Changing Climate. Canberra: CSIRO Publishing.
DAWE (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment) (2020). State of the Environment: Biodiversity Report. Canberra: Australian Government.
DELWP (Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning) (2023). Traditional Owner Cultural Fire Strategy for Victoria. Melbourne: Victorian Government.
Gammage, B. (2011). The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines Made Australia. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Hunt, J. & Smith, D.E. (2021). Cultural Fire and Climate Change Adaptation in Australia. Canberra: Australian National University Press.
McNiven, I.J. & Bell, D. (2010). ‘Fishers and Farmers: Historicising Aboriginal Aquaculture and Agriculture in Victoria.’ Aboriginal History, 34, pp. 165–193.
Pascoe, B. (2014). Dark Emu: Aboriginal Australia and the Birth of Agriculture. Broome: Magabala Books.
Reynolds, H. (1987). The Law of the Land. Ringwood: Penguin.
Rose, D.B. (1996). Nourishing Terrains: Australian Aboriginal Views of Landscape and Wilderness. Canberra: Australian Heritage Commission.
UNESCO (2019). Budj Bim Cultural Landscape: World Heritage Listing. Paris: UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter 16/09/2025
Magic Lands Alliance
Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land and community.
Copyright of MLA – 2025
Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.