Indigenous Lore
The Old People of Victoria: Deep History, Ice Ages, and the Formation of Nations
Aboriginal people are the world’s oldest continuous culture, with archaeological evidence showing occupation of Australia for at least 65,000 years (Clarkson et al., 2017). In Victoria, the history of the Old People — ancestors of today’s First Nations — stretches back tens of thousands of years before the rise of the Kulin Nations. From the Grampians (Gariwerd) to the Murray River, and across the coastal plains and volcanic landscapes, the Old People left behind rock art, stone tools, middens, and sacred sites that express a deep connection to Country (Flood, 2006). Their story encompasses the last Ice Age, dramatic environmental change, and the eventual formation of the nations of Victoria, including the Kulin, Gunditjmara, Yorta Yorta, and many others (Broome, 2005).
Early Times
Archaeological evidence from sites such as Lake Mungo (in the NSW/VIC borderlands) and Keilor (near Melbourne) shows human presence dating back 40,000–50,000 years (Flood, 2006; Bowler et al., 2003). Stone tools from Keilor demonstrate advanced hunting and tool-making technologies suited to changing environments (Lourandos, 1997). In the Grampians (Gariwerd), rock shelters containing paintings and stone artefacts reveal occupation for at least 22,000 years, surviving through the harshest conditions of the Ice Age (Clark, 1990; David et al., 2021). These sites are among the most important records of continuous human adaptation in south-eastern Australia.
The Ice Age and Environmental Change
During the Last Glacial Maximum, around 20,000 years ago:
Sea levels were roughly 120 metres lower than today.
The landmass of Victoria extended further south, joining Tasmania across the Bassian Plain.
Old People moved freely across this plain, hunting megafauna and maintaining songlines that stretched from Gariwerd to what is now Bass Strait (Lambeck & Chappell, 2001).
When the ice melted and the seas rose between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago, Tasmania became isolated and Victoria’s coastlines were re-shaped. The Old People adapted by altering settlement patterns and developing complex aquaculture systems, such as the Gunditjmara eel traps at Budj Bim — one of the oldest known aquaculture systems in the world (McNiven & Bell, 2010; UNESCO, 2019).
The Grampians (Gariwerd) and the Ancestors
The Grampians (Gariwerd) are a central cultural landscape in Victoria.
They contain:
Rock art galleries — among the oldest in south-eastern Australia — depicting animals, humans, and spiritual beings.
Stone shelters and campsites showing Ice Age occupation.
Dreaming stories that connect mountains, waterholes, and creation ancestors (Clark, 1990; Lane, 2019).
Gariwerd remains sacred to the Jardwadjali and Djab Wurrung peoples, whose ancestors maintained these cultural sites as part of a continuous tradition that links to broader Kulin law (Blake, 1991).
From Clans to Nations
As the climate stabilised after the Ice Age, Aboriginal societies across Victoria organised into nations and clan groups, each with distinct languages, moieties, and territories (Barwick, 1998; Broome, 2005).
The Kulin Nation
Based in central Victoria, comprising the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung, Taungurung, Wadawurrung, and Dja Dja Wurrung.
United by shared language links and moieties — Bunjil (the wedge-tailed eagle) and Waang (the crow) (Blake, 1991).
Seasonal gatherings at Mount William Quarry and Merri Creek reflect complex trade, marriage law, and diplomacy (Barwick, 1998; Clark & Heydon, 2002).
Other Nations
Gunditjmara in south-west Victoria built extensive eel-trap systems at Budj Bim, recognised by UNESCO (2019) for its 6,000-year-old engineering.
Yorta Yorta peoples lived along the Murray River, with economies centred on river systems and wetlands (Broome, 2005).
Gunai/Kurnai peoples of Gippsland maintained clan territories tied to rivers, lakes, and coastal ecosystems (Wesson, 2000).
These nations evolved over thousands of years, grounded in the social and spiritual systems established by the Old People who endured through climate and landscape transformations (Lourandos, 1997).
Spiritual Continuity
For Indigenous peoples of Victoria, the Old People are not simply ancient ancestors but continuing presences within Country.
Oral traditions and songlines preserve:
Creation Ancestors whose actions formed mountains, rivers, and coastlines.
Stories of ancient journeys that mirror now-submerged landscapes, including Bass Strait (Nunn & Reid, 2016).
Totemic systems connecting clans with animals, plants, and celestial bodies — aspects of law that have persisted since the Ice Age (Hamacher & Norris, 2011).
These traditions link past and present, carrying ecological, astronomical, and ethical knowledge across generations.
Dispossession and Colonial Pressure
With European invasion in the 1830s, these systems of nations and law were violently disrupted. The Silent War, massacres, missions, and displacement attempted to erase thousands of years of connection to Country (Reynolds, 1987; Broome, 2005). Yet the Old People’s presence endures — in rock art, in sacred sites, and in the knowledge upheld by Elders and communities who continue to speak for Country.
Global Analogies
The story of Victoria’s Old People reflects global patterns of human adaptation:
North America: First Nations peoples survived the Ice Age, migrating with melting ice and rising seas.
Scandinavia: Rock art and shelters record Ice Age lifeways and emerging cultural identities.
Polynesia: Oral traditions recall land lost to rising seas, echoing Indigenous Australian stories of the flooded Bass Strait (Nunn & Reid, 2016).
Such comparisons highlight that Indigenous cultures worldwide integrated environmental change into their cosmologies and survival systems.
Conclusion
The Old People of Victoria endured Ice Ages, sea-level rise, and dramatic ecological shifts, leaving enduring cultural landscapes such as Gariwerd and Budj Bim that evidence an unbroken connection to Country. From this deep foundation emerged the nations of Victoria — the Kulin, Gunditjmara, Yorta Yorta, and Gunai/Kurnai — each with unique languages, laws, and cosmologies.
Despite colonisation and attempted erasure, the Old People’s legacy lives on in the land itself, in oral traditions, and in the cultural resurgence of their descendants. Recognising this deep history reframes Victoria not as a land “discovered” in 1835, but as a place of human life, law, and belonging stretching back over 40,000 years.
Reference List
Barwick, D. (1998). Rebellion at Coranderrk. Canberra: Aboriginal History Monograph.
Blake, B. (1991). Wathawurrung and the Colac Language of Southern Victoria. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Bowler, J.M., et al. (2003). New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. Nature, 421(6925), 837-840.
Broome, R. (2005). Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
Clark, I. (1990). Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria, 1800–1900. Melbourne: Monash Publications in Geography.
Clark, I., & Heydon, T. (2002). The Confluence of Aboriginal Oral Tradition and European Historical Documents. Melbourne: Heritage Matters.
Clarkson, C., et al. (2017). Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago. Nature, 547(7663), 306-310.
David, B., et al. (2021). The deep history of Gariwerd rock art sites. Australian Archaeology, 87(1), 5-24.
Flood, J. (2006). The Original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal People. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.
Hamacher, D., & Norris, R. (2011). Bridging the Gap through Australian Aboriginal Astronomy. Australian Journal of Astronomy, 20, 10-17.
Lambeck, K., & Chappell, J. (2001). Sea Level Change through the Last Glacial Cycle. Science, 292(5517), 679-686.
Lane, R. (2019). Cultural Heritage of the Gariwerd Ranges. Melbourne: Victorian Aboriginal Heritage Council.
Lourandos, H. (1997). Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McNiven, I., & Bell, D. (2010). Fish Traps and Cultural Engineering at Budj Bim. World Archaeology, 42(2), 185-197.
Nunn, P., & Reid, N. (2016). Aboriginal memories of inundation of the Australian coastline. Australian Geographer, 47(1), 11-47.
Reynolds, H. (1987). The Law of the Land. Ringwood: Penguin.
UNESCO. (2019). Budj Bim Cultural Landscape World Heritage Listing. Paris: UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Wesson, J. (2000). The Aboriginal History of Gippsland. Melbourne: Aboriginal Affairs Victoria.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter 16/09/2025 and Uncle Reg Abrahams
MLA
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Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.