Native Animals History and Science
History of The Wedge-tailed Eagle on Country
The Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax) is Australia’s largest bird of prey, with a wingspan reaching up to 2.8 metres. In Victoria, it is more than just an apex predator: it is Bunjil—a creator being, law-giver, and cultural guardian. Revered by the Kulin Nations of central Victoria, the eagle embodies strength, vision, and spiritual authority.
Its story interweaves ecology, mythology, colonisation, and conservation, making it one of the most important animals in Victoria’s cultural and environmental history (Clark 1990; Broome 2005).
Physical Characteristics and Ecology
The Wedge-tailed Eagle is easily recognised by its massive size, wedge-shaped tail, and soaring flight. In ecological systems, it performs several key roles:
Predator and scavenger: Feeds on rabbits, wallabies, kangaroos, and carrion (Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Apex raptor: Helps regulate prey populations, maintaining ecological balance (Olsen 2005).
Wide-ranging: Occupies habitats from alpine regions to coastal plains.
Pairs build enormous stick nests in tall trees or cliffs, often re-using them for decades. As the top aerial predator, the eagle functions as a keystone species, shaping the dynamics of smaller carnivores and prey species (Olsen 2005).
Bunjil in Indigenous Knowledge and Creation
For the Kulin Nations—including the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung, Taungurung, Dja Dja Wurrung, and Wadawurrung peoples—Bunjil is far more than an eagle. He is a creator ancestor and law-giver, central to identity, moral order, and connection to Country (Clark 1990; Clarke 1997).
Bunjil the Creator: According to oral traditions, Bunjil created the land, rivers, mountains, and people, giving laws for living and responsibilities for caring for Country (Clark 1990).
Cultural Authority: Bunjil represents order, morality, and respect. His teachings structure kinship systems, ceremonies, and custodianship of land and sky (Clarke 1997).
The Sky Journey: After completing his work, Bunjil is said to have ascended into the sky, becoming a star—often associated with Altair or part of the Milky Way (Hamacher 2012). From there, he watches over the land and its people.
Bunjil continues to be honoured through art, ceremony, and public memorials—such as the monumental Bunjil the Eagle sculpture at Docklands, Melbourne, symbolising his ongoing spiritual presence and cultural authority (Clarke 1997; Broome 2005).
Language and Names of the Eagle in Victorian Indigenous Communities
Language holds deep significance in how Victorian Indigenous peoples understand Bunjil and the eagle.
Among the Woiwurrung and Wadawurrung languages, Bunjil refers to both the eagle and the Creator Being. The name embodies dual meanings: a physical raptor of the sky and a spiritual law-giver whose gaze maintains balance across Country (Blake 1991).
The Boonwurrung and Taungurung share variations of the word Bunjil or Pundjil, affirming its deep linguistic and cultural continuity across the Kulin Nations (Clark 1990).
In the Gunditjmara and Eastern Maar languages of south-west Victoria, the eagle is linked to terms for “sky-being” or “watcher,” representing ancestral oversight from above (VACL 2022).
Language revival projects by the Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL) continue to reintroduce these ancestral words through education, signage, and cultural renewal—ensuring the language of Bunjil continues to soar alongside the eagle (VACL 2022).
Origins and Deep Time: How the Eagle Arose, Its Age, and Endurance through Change
From a scientific perspective, the story of Bunjil’s earthly form—the Wedge-tailed Eagle—reaches back tens of millions of years. Hawks, eagles and their kin (family Accipitridae) first appear in the Paleogene, with the family’s roots traceable to the Eocene (≈56–34 million years ago) based on Europe-centred fossil evidence and comparative anatomy (Mayr 2009). Within this radiation, “true eagles” (Aquila and close relatives) diversified later, by the Miocene (≈23–5 million years ago), when open habitats expanded globally and large soaring raptors specialised for high-lift flight became more widespread (Mayr 2009; Olsen 2005).
In Australia, the Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax) is part of this Old World eagle lineage. While molecular clocks and comparative biogeography point to an arrival and/or in-situ evolution by the late Neogene (Miocene–Pliocene), the direct fossil record places Wedge-tailed Eagles securely in Australia by the Late Pleistocene (≤126–12 thousand years ago), with sub-fossil remains from cave and dune deposits in south-eastern Australia (Boles 2006; Olsen 2005). Australia also hosted other large raptors through the Pleistocene, including the extinct giant eagle Dynatoaetus, underscoring a deep and dynamic history of big eagles on Country (Boles 2006).
Across the Pliocene–Pleistocene climatic cycles, Australia oscillated between wetter and drier phases; grasslands and open woodlands expanded, favouring thermal-soaring eagles that hunt over broad horizons (Kershaw et al. 2003). Through Holocene sea-level rise and shifting fire regimes, Wedge-tailed Eagles persisted by flexible prey choice (from macropods, wallabies and birds to carrion) and by using high, reusable eyries in cliffs and tall trees. Even post-colonisation environmental shocks—rampant land-clearing, bounty shooting, and the arrival of European rabbits—were met with behavioural plasticity: the species incorporated new prey (rabbits) while remaining an apex scavenger and hunter (Olsen 2005).
In cultural time, this endurance means that the same eagle people have watched for countless generations has also withstood ice-age winds, shoreline shifts, and profound ecological re-shaping—a living continuity linking deep geological time with living law on Country.
Indigenous Astronomy: Bunjil in the Sky
Bunjil’s story extends beyond the earth into the stars. Aboriginal astronomy connects him with celestial patterns that guide law, seasons, and ceremony.
In Kulin traditions, Bunjil is represented by Altair, the brightest star in the constellation Aquila (The Eagle). His two wives, represented by nearby stars, accompany his nightly journey (Hamacher 2012).
The Southern Cross and neighbouring constellations are also tied to stories of Bunjil’s law and the balance between light and darkness, marking seasonal transitions for hunting and ceremony (Clarke 1997).
Through the night sky, Bunjil’s teachings endure—his flight a reminder that law, land, and cosmos remain connected.
Colonial Impacts and Persecution
With colonisation, the sacred status of the Wedge-tailed Eagle was disregarded. Settlers viewed eagles as threats to livestock rather than as guardians of Country.
Government bounties from the late 1800s to mid-20th century rewarded the killing of eagles, and thousands were shot, trapped, or poisoned (Broome 2005). Farmers blamed eagles for lamb losses, though later studies showed their impact minimal compared to foxes and dogs (Olsen 2005).
Widespread land clearing destroyed nesting sites, disrupting ecological balance and cultural continuity (Pyne 2012).
The Science of the Eagle: Vision, Flight, and Ecology
Modern research has confirmed the remarkable capabilities of the Wedge-tailed Eagle—knowledge long recognised through Indigenous observation.
The eagle’s eyesight is up to eight times sharper than human vision, allowing detection of small prey over kilometres.
Thermal currents enable the bird to soar effortlessly at altitudes exceeding 2,000 metres (Marchant & Higgins 1993).
Breeding pairs mate for life, showing social bonds that mirror Bunjil’s teachings of loyalty, responsibility, and partnership (Olsen 2005).
Both scientific and Indigenous perspectives converge in viewing the eagle as a being of perception, balance, and guardianship over Country.
Global Indigenous and Cultural Eagle Symbolism
Across the world, the eagle holds sacred meaning that often parallels Bunjil’s role.
In Native North America, the eagle acts as a messenger between humans and the Creator, symbolising courage and spiritual insight (Clarke 1997).
In Aotearoa (New Zealand), the extinct Hokioi (Haast’s Eagle) appears in Māori oral histories as a guardian spirit and omen of power (Broome 2005).
Across Asia and Europe, eagles have long represented divine authority, foresight, and the bridge between earth and sky (Olsen 2005).
These global parallels highlight a universal reverence for eagles as beings of law, light, and connection, affirming the ancient truths of Kulin cosmology.
Key Bunjil Sites in Victoria
Victoria contains numerous sacred and cultural places associated with Bunjil, reflecting both spiritual and ecological significance:
Bunjil’s Shelter (You Yangs Regional Park): A sacred rock shelter believed to be Bunjil’s resting place after creation. The site remains a powerful spiritual landmark for the Wadawurrung and Wurundjeri peoples (Clark 1990).
Bunjil Place (Narre Warren): A modern cultural centre designed in Bunjil’s form, representing unity, creativity, and respect for Country.
Bunjil the Eagle Sculpture (Docklands, Melbourne): A monumental artwork by Bruce Armstrong embodying Bunjil’s protective presence over the city (Broome 2005).
Mount William and Lerderderg Ranges: Associated with stories of Bunjil’s flight and law-giving.
Grampians (Gariwerd): Cliff faces and ridges where Wedge-tailed Eagles nest, continuing to symbolise vision, power, and connection (Clarke 1997).
These locations unite story, spirit, and landscape—each a living reminder that Bunjil’s law remains written across Victoria’s skies and hills.
Conservation and Cultural Renewal
By the late 20th century, attitudes toward eagles had shifted dramatically.
Legal protection under the Wildlife Act 1975 (Vic) now prohibits harming them.
Populations have recovered in several regions, though threats persist from illegal shooting, wind-farm collisions, and poisoned baits (Olsen 2005).
Traditional Owner groups such as the Wadawurrung Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation and Wurundjeri Woi Wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation integrate Bunjil’s teachings into conservation and youth education, linking biodiversity protection with cultural law (VACL 2022).
Symbolism and Modern Identity
Bunjil has become a unifying symbol of renewal across Victoria.
Public art and architecture—from Bunjil Place to the Docklands Eagle—honour his story, while schools and community programs retell his law of respect and responsibility to Country (Broome 2005).
The eagle’s survival stands as both ecological and cultural resilience, reminding Victorians of the interconnectedness of spirit, land, and life.
The Future of Bunjil and the Eagle
For Victoria’s First Peoples, protecting Bunjil means safeguarding the principles he embodies—law, balance, and care for Country.
Efforts continue to:
Protect nesting and breeding sites from development and logging.
Minimise poisoning through sustainable pest-control strategies.
Embed Traditional Owner perspectives in environmental management (VACL 2022).
As communities, scientists, and Elders work together, the spirit of Bunjil continues to guide conservation and truth-telling across Country.
Conclusion
The Wedge-tailed Eagle is both a magnificent predator and a sacred cultural being. As Bunjil, he embodies creation, morality, and connection—watching over Victoria’s people and lands from sky to soil. His story bridges Dreaming and science, reminding us that conservation is also cultural.
To protect the eagle is to uphold Bunjil’s law: respect for life, balance, and Country.
References
Blake, BJ (1991) Woiwurrung: The Melbourne Language of the Kulin Nation, Pacific Linguistics, Canberra.
Boles, WE (2006) ‘Fossil birds of Australia,’ in Evolution and Biogeography of Australasian Vertebrates (eds Merrick et al.), Auscipub, Sydney, pp. 387–429.
Broome, R (2005) Aboriginal Victorians: A History Since 1800, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
Clark, ID (1990) Aboriginal Languages and Clans: An Historical Atlas of Western and Central Victoria, 1800–1900, Monash Publications in Geography, Melbourne.
Clarke, PA (1997) ‘The Aboriginal Cosmic Landscape of Southern Australia,’ Records of the South Australian Museum 30(1): 1–14.
Hamacher, DW (2012) ‘On the Astronomical Knowledge and Traditions of Aboriginal Australians,’ Archaeoastronomy 25: 39–55.
Kershaw, AP, van der Kaars, S & Flenley, J (2003) ‘The Quaternary history of the Australian vegetation,’ in A History of the Australian Vegetation: Cretaceous to Recent (ed. RH Groves), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 236–306.
Marchant, S & Higgins, PJ (1993) Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds: Raptors to Lapwings, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Mayr, G (2009) Paleogene Fossil Birds, Springer, Berlin.
Olsen, P (2005) Wedge-tailed Eagle, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
Pyne, S (2012) The Burning Bush: A Fire History of Australia, University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages (VACL) (2022) Language Revival and Naming Project Reports, Melbourne.
Written, Researched and Directed by James Vegter 16/09/2025
Magic Lands Alliance
Sharing the truth of Indigenous and colonial history through film, education, land and community.
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Magic Lands Alliance acknowledge the Traditional Owners, Custodians, and First Nations communities across Australia and internationally. We honour their enduring connection to the sky, land, waters, language, and culture. We pay our respects to Elders past, present, and emerging, and to all First Peoples communities and language groups. This article draws only on publicly available information; many cultural practices remain the intellectual property of communities.